Climate change is expected to have severe impacts on mountain ecosystems and agriculture particularly in south and central Asia. In the Himalayas, warming rates are higher than the global average, while steep topographies and shallow, nutrient-poor soils favor erosion caused land degradation.
Farming communities in the Himalayas are often marginalised, show high poverty levels, low literacy rates, and poor access to resources, markets, and off-farm employment, thus depending on subsistence agriculture making them more vulnerable to climate change.
Indigenous tribal farming communities in Northeast India, designated as Scheduled Tribes by the Indian government depend on centuries-old rain-fed, low-input, and thus purely organic production systems. Climate change puts these production systems at risk because of their strong dependence on timely rainfalls and intact fertile soils.
<p><em>A few studies on climate change perception and adaptation in the Himalayas exist, but there is a lack of information on farmers’ values and related goals and preferences in the adaptation process. This paper titled '<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479723022612">Managing uphill cultivation under climate change – An assessment of adaptation decisions among tribal farmers in Nagaland state of India</a>' in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-environmental-management">Journal of Environmental Management</a> discusses the findings of a study among tribal farmers from Nagaland State in Northeast India that sought to find out:</em></p> <ul><li><em>The climate futures that can be expected for the region</em></li> <li><em>The climate and environmental changes perceived by the farmers and their connections to socio-demographic factors</em></li> <li><em>Current adoption rates of <h3>soil and water conservation practices (SWCP)</h3> and factors influencing their adoption</em></li> <li><em>Personal values that tribal farmers considered in the adaptation process</em></li> </ul>
Climate models predict a steady increase of temperatures in the region during the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century that have important implications for upland cultivation in the region. Due to increase in temperatures and potential evapotranspiration, water availability for plants is predicted to decrease even under increasing total annual precipitation. Since precipitation intensities are projected to increase simultaneously, runoff and hence soil erosion will most probably increase as well, making soil and water conservation practices (SWCP)
Temperature increase was the most important change observed by farmers. Over 80 percent of farmers perceived an increase in temperatures, with slightly higher perception rates among farmers with at least secondary education. There were no notable differences between male and female farmers and those with longer and shorter farming experience. Most farmers (57 percent), especially those with longer farming experience (64 percent) felt that there was a decrease in rainfall and a shift in monsoon season (16 percent farmers).
<p><em>An increase in the frequency of droughts was reported by female (50 percent) than by male (34 percent) farmers and by farmers with secondary education (49 percent). An increase in crop diseases was reported by as high as 64 percent of the farmers, particularly the more experienced and more educated farmers. Productivity declines were reported by 54 percent of all farmers and 63 percent of those with longer farming experience. Risks related to soil instability were perceived as an increasing problem, with 50 percent of all farmers reporting increase in erosion and 25 percent an increase in landslides and 44 percent reported of increase in pest attacks. </em></p>
While tribal farmers in Nagaland used various soil and water conservation practices (SWCP), their overall adoption rates remained relatively low (below 50 percent). Intercropping with legumes was the most widely used practice (46 percent), followed by mulching (40 percent) i.e. covering the soil with biological material, e.g., crop residues. RWH and application of manure showed similar adoption rates at 31 percent and 29 percent, respectively. Cover crops had the lowest adoption rate, with only 14 percent of all farmers in the study using them.
<p><em>Participation in training positively influenced the adoption of soil and water conservation practices (SWCP) namely mulching, intercropping with legumes, and RWH. Participation in a civil society organisations also had a significant positive effect on three out of five measures, namely mulching, intercropping, and RWH. Among the civil society organisations, self-help groups were the most important, with over 50 percent of all farmers indicating their participation, besides religious institutions and village councils, with 30 percent and 28 percent participation, which played an important role in connecting farmers and supporting information exchange. Regular contact with extension services also showed a positive correlation with adoption of positive practices such as cover crops and RWH, and negative for mulching, intercropping, and manure.</em></p> <p><em>Adoption of cover crops and intercropping increased significantly when farm households had access to at least two off-farm income sources. Owning livestock significantly increased the adoption of mulching, intercropping, and manuring. Having received financial support didn’t have a significant effect on adaptation.</em></p>
Perceived changes influenced the adoption of SWCP in diverse ways. Perceived increase in droughts and decrease in rainfall quantity showed a positive correlation with the adoption of cover crops, intercropping, manure, and RWH. Perceived increase in rainfall intensity increased adoption of intercropping and RWH, while perception of an increase in soil erosion significantly and positively influenced the adoption of cover crops and mulching.
Older farmers with at least 20 years of farming experience were more likely to adopt mulching. Education levels above secondary significantly and positively influenced the adoption of RWH and farmers living at elevations above 1000 m were significantly more likely to adopt cover crops, intercropping, and rainwater harvesting. However, a market distance of 10 km or more negatively influenced the adoption of cover crops and intercropping, underlining the importance of market accessibility in the adaptation process.
<p><em>The study found a large unused potential for the adoption of SWCP revealing that adoption rates of all measures could be doubled when exposure to effective influencing factors was improved. Adoption of cover crops could increase to above 60 percent when all farming households had access to at least two off-farm income sources. Participation in a training could improve adoption rates of mulching to more than 80 percent. Intercropping with legumes could be applied by over 80 percent of farmers when they received the appropriate training or were involved in livestock rearing. </em></p> <p><em>Participation in a training and livestock ownership could triple the application of manure. Adoption rates of RWH could reach about 60 percent if all farmers participated in a implementation. Increasing yields of food crops and family income were important motivations for tribal farmers in making adaptation decisions.</em></p>
Most farmers preferred management practices that conserve natural resources and are less work-intensive as available workforce for farming in tribal communities is limited to family members while the younger population has the tendency to leave farming for education or other forms of employment. Farmers strongly favored a continuation of shifting cultivation because of its cultural value and farming practices that are employed by the majority of the village community while migration was not one of the preferred adaptation options by the farmers.
The study thus revealed that while current adoption rates of SWCP ranged only between 14 percent and 46 percent, which were relatively low, adoption of conservation measures increased with participation in training. Participation in a civil society organisations, livestock ownership, high-altitude residence, and perceived increases in droughts led farmers to adopt at least three out of five SWCP. Contacts with extension workers outside of a training context appeared to be less effective in promoting adaptation.
The study revealed important insights for regional authorities and identified strategies for a more sustainable adaptation of uphill tribal farming systems to climate change. Effective strategies included improving farmer' s awareness of future changes in precipitation patterns and increasing training programs on SWCP. The paper ends by arguing that future research is needed to identify current deficits and future potentials of extension services in the propagation of SWCP in the region.