Springs spring hope for Kashmir

Water scarcity and inadequate access to freshwater, particularly in rural areas is rising in India due to rapid population growth, changing lifestyles, urbanisation, industrialisation and climate change. The availability of freshwater in the country has already declined by 53 percent and projections suggest a further decline to 72 percent by 2025.

Water scarcity in the Himalayas

The situation is particularly challenging in sub-tropical and mountainous regions, where intense rainfall often exacerbates water scarcity due to the region's high altitude and sloping terrain, leading to significant surface runoff and quick subsurface flows.

Geological formations play a crucial role in creating mountain aquifers in the Himalayas, which often manifest as natural springs that emerge where impermeable rock intersects with the groundwater table, influenced by lithology, soil porosity, permeability, hydrogeomorphology, slope, and precipitation.

While the Himalayas receive adequate rainfall, much of the region is categorized as dryland with minimal irrigation (less than 2% of land irrigated), posing significant challenges in drinking water accessibility. The Himalayas face various natural and human-induced pressures, including climate change, global warming, glacier melt, reduced snowfall, increased heavy rainfall, and widespread flooding, all of which are severely impacting water resources and spring discharge. Evidence indicates that there has been a serious decline in spring discharge or drying up of springs due to variations in rainfall patterns and groundwater recharge capacities across the Himalayas.

This study from Anantanag district investigates the discharge of springs (Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, Achabal Spring, Lukhbawan Spring, Martand Spring, Malakhnag Spring and Sherbagh Spring) and the water requirement of different crops belonging to these areas. The study aims at determining the water needed for the various crops that are cultivated in the region and estimates the volume of water available from springs in the region.

Anantnag, the southernmost district of Kashmir is renowned for its abundance of springs, as implied by its name "Anant" meaning limitless and "Nag" meaning springs. Notable springs include Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, Achabal Spring, Lukhbawan Spring, Martand Spring, Malakhnag Spring, and  Sherbagh Spring.

The discharge rate of springs in Anantanag

• Verinag spring has the highest discharge rate of 4.55 m³/s with a water flow of 70.76 Mm³ over six months. This volume significantly exceeds the crop water requirement of 17.02 Mm³, making Verinag spring highly suitable for irrigation in the area. Since it is a perennial spring, its discharge remains consistent throughout the year, ensuring that crop water needs are fully met by the spring alone.

• Kokernag spring, has a discharge rate of 1.16 m³/s, and provides a total water flow of 18.0 Mm³ over six months, surpassing the crop water requirement of 11.86 Mm³. The spring water can thus can take care of irrigation in the area, and its consistent year-round discharge reliably meets crop water demands and prevents the need for finding other water sources in the area.

• The Martand temple spring also proves to be a viable source for irrigation, and provides a total 282 discharge of 13.53 Mm³ over six months, which exceeds the crop water requirement of 11.76 283 Mm³, making it a feasible water source for irrigation in the Mattan area.

• Lukhbawan spring's discharge of 2.76 Mm³ over six months falls short of 378 the crop water requirement of 11.76 Mm³, making it unsuitable for irrigation in the area. Achabal Spring also records an overall discharge of 2.76 Mm³ over six months, failing to meet the crop water requirement of 10.65 Mm³, and thus cannot be suitable for irrigation in the Achabal area.

• Sherbagh Spring and Malakhnag Spring, are mainly used for provision of drinking water and are very important in providing potable water rather than meeting irrigation needs. 

Water requirement by crops in the district

• Among the crops, paddy shows the highest water requirement at 265.38 mm in July, and Verinag spring, with its high discharge rate of 4.55 m³/s and total of 70.76 Mm³ over six months, is well-equipped to meet this high-water requirement. Its year-round discharge can ensure sufficient water availability during peak summer months when water needs for paddy are at their highest. Similarly, Kokernag Spring (1.16 m³/s, 18.0 Mm³) and Martand Temple Spring (13.53 Mm³) provide ample water to support paddy cultivation.

• Maize has a water requirement of 206.65 mm in July and Verinag spring, Kokernag spring, and Martand temple spring are all capable of meeting these demands due to their discharge rates and consistent water flow.

• With a peak water requirement of 136.65 mm in September, millets can also benefit from the consistent flow of Verinag Spring, Kokernag Spring, and Martand Temple Spring, ensuring sustained water availability into the early autumn months.

Thus reliable spring discharge is critical in meeting the agricultural water needs of the region throughout the year. Thus sustainable management of water resources through springshed management becomes crucial in the region.

What can be done to ensure sustainable spring management in the region?

Mapping springs in the region is crucial

High-resolution satellite imagery and LiDAR technology can be useful for detailed mapping of springs in the region. Time-series analysis with remote sensing data can help monitoring of seasonal and long-term changes, and provide a comprehensive understanding of discharge patterns of the springs in the district.

Conducting robust climate impact studies

Developing and applying climate models can be greatly useful in predicting how climate change will affect precipitation and temperature variations, influencing spring discharge and crop water needs and for identifying adaptive land use and water management strategies to mitigate these impacts. 

Integrated Watershed Management is needed

A holistic approach to watershed management, considering land use, forest cover, and hydrology, is essential. Engaging local communities in planning and implementation will greatly help to ensure sustainable management of water resources in the region.

Biodiversity conservation important

Protecting critical habitats around springs to conserve biodiversity is crucial. Monitoring programs for conservation of biodiversity of the region will greatly help in conserving water resources in the region.

Geological and hydrological research is crucial

Detailed hydrogeological studies to understand groundwater flow patterns, identifying recharge areas and mitigating risks from natural disasters will greatly help in better water resource management.

Collaborative research can provide solutions

Interdisciplinary and collaborative efforts can help in sharing knowledge and best practices and can help drive innovation in sustainable management of water resources in the area.